Creation of Rape Culture through Mass Media

via http://www.christophercantwell.com

                Cases of rape becoming increasingly prevalent in Indonesia. Saur Tumiur, Commissioner of the National Commission of Women (Komnas Perempuan) said the country is in a state of emergency violence against women. Because the number of violence against women continues to increase from year to year. According to her, this phenomenon is very emergency to be anticipated.[1] Based on data of Komnas Perempuan in 2014, showed the number of violence against women as many as 293,220 cases. This number increased compared to the year 2013 as many as 279,688 cases.

                One of the cases of sexual violence were mostly discussed is the case of Sitok Srengenge allegedly impregnating his student with the initials RW. This case became public trending topic because the  reported of the case is considered gender bias. In this regard, some media reported that the reports are not objectively linked to the case.

                In three news which was regarding RW in three news portal media, all of them are containing opinions "Why casualties reported after pregnancy and the incidence of rape can be repeated." That ‘outdated’ opinion was expressed in Kompas.com (09/08/2014), Merdeka.com (08/09/2014) and detik.com (09/08/2014). That insensitive speech and lack of logic as was stated by  Heru Pranoto, Director General of Criminal Investigation Jakarta Police Commissioner of Police.

                The statement is certainly degrading women, particularly victims of sexual violence. As if what is experienced by the victim is a natural thing. In addition, RW who have become victims of it has also been blamed. Rape that happened was a "mistake" she had done by herself. Meanwhile, Sitok, as the suspect blamed naturally. Another example is, nominees of Supreme Court Judge, Daming Muhammad Sanusi who is commented on the alleged rape case. When asked about the death penalty for rape, he said, "Both of them (the one who get raped and the one who raped) enjoy it together(raping/sexual assault). So it must be rethought on the death penalty. "(14/01/2013)[2]. Statement of Daming Samusi greeted by laughter some members board. They consider rape as a joke.

                Seeing these examples, we can see that the rape culture in Indonesia is getting merged in the community. People assume that a rape case is not urgent to be anticipated. As for cases of rape is often used as a joke by some unscrupulous. They do not know what is faced by victims of rape is prolonged trauma; it’s long-term trauma. In this case, rape is not only meant as an act of mere sexuality. Moreover, rape is an act of violence and includes criminal. However, why do people still turn a blind eye to this. Law in Indonesia was not yet fully sided against rape victims. Cases of rape are always met with a "blame the victim". This is so cliche that we often hear is that women who experienced rape caused by their own behavior, namely in using minimal clothing and nights out.

                In fact, the fact that the case is not like that. Based on data from Rifka Annisa[3], rape is more often done by people nearby. This proves that the clothes are skimpy and habits of a night out is a reason to blame the women. Rape that committed by men protected with nonsense reason. However, why cases of rape are still considered normal? Not just be something natural and inherent in the life of society, rape is also increasing.

                In fact, human civilization is more advanced with the laws and moral values of religion and society. However, why rape still occur in our life? The answer is simple, the perpetuation of patriarchal culture in Indonesia. In the meantime, the perpetuation of patriarchal culture supported by the mass media. The mass media should educate the public and provide objective values. However, the mass media not do that. They have even more perpetuate the patriarchy culture.

                Attachment of sexual violence or rape in the community will lead to a culture that is rape culture. Rape culture is encouraging male sexual aggression. Rape culture is regarding violence as sexy and sexuality as violent.[4] Rape culture is treating rape as a compliment, as the unbridled passion stirred in a healthy man by a beautiful woman, making irresistible the urge to rip open her bodice or slam her against a wall, or a wrought-iron fence, or a car hood, or pull her by her hair, or shove her onto a bed, or any one of a million other images of movies and television shows and on the covers of romance novels that convey violent urges are inextricably linked with (straight) sexuality.[5] Some components of rape culture include blaming victims for their sexual assault, trivializing sexual assault, focusing on an assault victim’s dress, or sexual history, according to the Marshall report. Gratuitous sexual violence in television and movies is another way rape culture is normalized as part of pop culture.[6]

                Rape occurs because of the subordination and oppression of the weak. Oppression in our culture is often performed on women. Male dominance is maintained through intimidation or what is called the practice of social terror (Susan Griffin, 1991).[7] These practices have limited the freedom of women, women should not travel alone especially at night, may not present themselves aggressively and dress provocative. Thus the identity and female sexuality entirely constructed by men (MacKinnon)[8]. At almost every rape training utilizing a feminist perspective, the mantra that ‘‘rape is not about sex, it is about violence or power/control’’ will be articulated. It is most often stated as a fact with no citation or empirical evidence offered.[9]

                Rape culture is one of the "child" of a patriarchal culture. Patriarchy is a term rarely heard in mainstream conversation, especially since the backlash against feminism took off in the 1980s. The late feminist historian Gerda Lerner’s definition of patriarchy as “the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance over women in the society in general.” Patriarchy implies, she continued, “that men hold power in all the important institutions of society and that women are deprived of access to such power. It does not imply that women are either totally powerless or totally deprived of rights, influence and resources.”[10]

                Feminism challenges acts of male dominance and analyzes the underlying patriarchal ideology that tries to make that dominance seem inevitable and immutable. Second-wave radical feminists in the second half of the 20th century identified men’s violence against women — rape, child sexual assault, domestic violence and various forms of harassment — as a key method of patriarchal control and made a compelling argument that sexual assault cannot be understood outside of an analysis of patriarchy’s ideology.

                Some of those feminists argued that “rape is about power not sex,” but other feminists went deeper, pointing out that when women describe the range of their sexual experiences it becomes clear there is no bright-line distinction between rape and not-rape, but instead a continuum of sexual intrusion into women’s lives by men. Yes, men who rape seek a sense of power, but men also use their power to get sex from women, sometimes under conditions that are not legally defined as rape but involve varying levels of control and coercion.[11]

Mass Media and Perpetuation of Patriarchy

                Culture becomes part of the communication behavior and also helped to determine the communication, maintain, develop or pass on the culture. "Culture is communication" and "communication is culture". Communication is meant here is the mass media. One function of the mass media is as a medium of socialization values ​​to be passed down from one generation to another[12]. Media as a means to identify with the values of the other (in the media). Humans have his own values, which in turn he will use to see the world. But people also need to look at the values created by the media. As we know, the media bring the values from all over the world. The implication is that media consumers can know the other values beyond its worth. Moreover, media as an identity provider, where the media is a means to improve the understanding of oneself. To see and judge who, what and how a person, on the other hand are generally required. Someone has to borrow someone else's glasses. Media can be used as one of the glasses used to see who, what and how this true self. Gender became one of the issues of interest in media content. From year to year, there is a distinct trend of how gender is represented in the media.

                In the 1970s for example, at that time, the gender issues raised in connection with the emergence of the feminist movement flow. Multiple streams of feminist movement of which is liberal feminism and radical feminism. Liberal feminism more focus on the idea of ​​justice relating to guarantee equal rights for all human beings, both men and women. In contrast, radical feminism believe that the oppression of women is actually more than just inequality in politics, but has spread to the social structure, which is patriarchal.[13]

                “Human behavior has often been explained in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behavior is depicted as either being shaped and controlled by environmental influences or drives by internal dispositions”[14]. Alex Bandura is referring to the unique ability that humans have to absorb and mimic their environment. Individuals create a personalized reality that is reflective of what they observe and identify as meaningful in their environment, and then they act based on those observations.

                In cultural studies, sex and gender are seen as social constructions that are intrinsically implicated in the problems of representation. Sex and gender is more a matter of cultural rather than natural. Feminist thought that emphasizes the essential difference between men and women, cultural studies tend to explore the idea of ​​sexual identity specific character historically, unstable, plastic and mutable.[15]

                To see the phenomenon of patriarchal culture, we can review it with the theory of radical feminism. According Arivia[16], the core of the radical feminist movement is the issue of women's oppression. They suspect that the persecution caused by the separation between the private sphere and the public sphere, which means that the private sphere rated lower than the public sphere, which allows flourishing condition patriarchy. In the concept of radical feminism, the body and sexuality holds the essence of which is very important. It is associated with the understanding that oppression initiated through its dominance over women's sexuality in the private sphere. Radical feminists chanted slogans that "the personal is political", which means the oppression in the private sphere is a suppression in the public sphere.

                Radical feminists give special attention to the issue of male violence against women. Male dominance in the patriarchal system to make violence against women, such as rape, domestic violence, pornography, sexual abuse, being a natural look and a "decent". In line with this understanding, also created a dichotomy of the good girls and bad girls. If a woman behaved, respectable, and obedient, then he will not be harmed.[17]

                Given that the patriarchal system which is the men hold the reins of power and domination, it is also men are entitled to provide a definition of behavior "unacceptable" and "inappropriate", or in other words, a woman should act horn in a pattern behavior to satisfy the tastes of men and to please them in order to obtain a safe and comfortable position. In the relationship of men and women so, there is a pattern of superordinate-subordinate, a target was want to eliminated by radical feminists.

                Patriarchal system is recognized as a system that has become a system of society in general. Erich Fromm stated that the patriarchal system in which men are destined to organize women, sturdy applies worldwide. Only in communities small primitive can be found the remains of an older form of “Matriaki”.[18] Before the patriarchal system into a system that is solid as it is today, Fromm believes that the existing system is matriarchal first. This corroborated the fact that the woman and the mother is the center of the community and family. According to Fromm, once the dominant female in the social system and the family system, and it can be seen traces of dominance in a variety of kinship systems, one of them in the Old Testament.[19]

                The media has a major role in perpetuating the patriarchal culture. Through advertising, television, movies, music videos, and even news reports - female imaged as weak creatures. Moreover, women are only considered as objects of male sexuality. Women have never been the subject and has a vital role in the life of society. In some such ads, advertising mineral water "Vit", "good women" is described as a dutiful wife and good in cleaning the house. The image of women as clearly demeaning to women. Therefore, women are only considered as "cleaning house". Their main task is only to be in the domestic sphere. Meanwhile, the categorization of good and bad women indicated by the values of domestic.

                In addition to being "domestic creatures", women were only considered as objects of male sexuality. This can be evidenced by the portrayal of women that leads to sexuality alone. Films in Indonesia still portray women as sex objects, weak beings, and can be suppressed to go around. Songs in Indonesia, both sung by male and female singers are also still portray women as sex objects.

                One of the songs sung by Bondan Fade 2 Black titled "Siapa" has been imaged women as sex objects. Women simply described as being satisfying male. Women do not have any position in society except as servants to men. In the song, men view women as a means of satisfying their lust. They are simply seen as physically alone. Often, women are portrayed as sexy and seductive to men. In some movies, soap operas, and advertisements, women are portrayed as a teaser. In this case, they did have a duty to tempt men. Naturally, if male then tempted by them because it is constructed such women.

                In this case, advertising and films often created women as a teaser and want to be seduced. Sightings exploited the female body. Some perfume ad featuring men even women who are so seductive and tempting to men. Women's body parts exploited. Women were seen as "meat" only. Not only that, the mass media also illustrates that women "deserve to be humiliated". By exploiting the female body as a commodity, dehumanization against women occurs. This then triggers rape culture.

                The author does not then generalize that the impressions that contain pornographic content affect cases of rape. What the authors highlight here is the concept that was shown in the mass media. Women are considered weak, so easily suppressed. The female body is nothing more than commodities or sex objects. Women were seen as goods. Dehumanization like this then cause various phenomena of sexual violence. In this case, rape as if it is something that is natural and normal for women are sex objects and deserves to be oppressed.

                Unfortunately again, reporting on cases of sexual violence are not done with a draw. In this case, victim blame still applied to justify the "acts" of men and the women is guilty. Press media who should be able to educate and advocate for women's position even more incriminating. Not only that, victims of rape often becomes a commodity media. In this case, their photographs display in the online media in order to get the reader (to get ads). Things like this is what causes the dehumanization of women.

                This dehumanization is the cause of the existence of rape culture. It can be said rape culture is the result of the portrayal of women in the media. If explored further; why women are so marginalized? When it comes to culture, the cause is a patriarchal culture. And unfortunately, this patriarchal culture perpetuated by mass media. The mass media have a major impact in constructing public perception. In this case, patriarchal culture becomes more "true" because it continues to be produced and reproduced by the media.

Rape Culture As The Result Portrayal of Women in the Mass Media

                Essentially, a “rape culture” normalizes and tolerates rape, and condones attitudes that justify and trivialize rape. The preservation of rape myths and rape culture has demonstrably disturbing and prominent effects; in one set of studies, Dr. G. Bohner and Dr. F. Siebler discovered that acceptance of rape myths has the potential to increase rape proclivity, exposing rape culture’s self-perpetuating nature. Interestingly, this set of studies showed that college males who saw that their peers scored high on a measure of rape acceptance also tended to score high. Such individuals also admitted greater rape inclinations, demonstrating the group-culture element to rape culture.[20]

                Particularly compelling support for the cultural basis of rape comes from cross-cultural studies[21], which reveal that rape is extremely rare in cultures that value women and feminine qualities and that have ideologies that promote harmonious interdependence among humans and between them and the natural world. Rape is most common in countries, like the United States, that have ideologies of male supremacy and dominance and a disrespect of women and nature. Cultural values communicated to us by family schools, media, and other sources constantly encourage us to believe men are superior, men should dominate women, male aggression is acceptable as a means of attaining what is wanted, women are passive and should defer to men, and women are sex objects. In concert, these beliefs legitimize violence and aggression against women.

                Considering further the cause of the perpetuation of rape culture is patriarchal culture that still preserved. This patriarchal culture is maintained by the mass media which may be dominated by men and a handful of capitalists who exploit women's bodies as a commodity. The portrayal of women in the media as being inferior, subordinate, weak, deserve to be oppressed and are sex objects become the main cause of the perpetuation of rape culture. It should be anticipated. The mass media should get the gender literacy in order not to further strengthen the culture of rape. In this case there should be a change in the system of social order in describing women. Women should be more humanized and respected. With the appreciation shown by the mass media, of course people will not perceive that women deserved sexual violence. [*]

References:

Anderson, Margaret L., Thinking About Women : Sociologist and Feminist Perspectives, Macmillan, New York, 1983.

Arifia, Gadis. 2003. Filsafat Berperspektif Feminis. Yayasan Jurnal Perempuan: Jakarta.

Arifin, Nurul. (2001). Wajah perempuan dalam media massa. dalam Mediator, vol 2, Hal 199-202.

Bandura, Albert. 1999. “Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.” Asian Journal of Social Psychology.

Braudillard, Jean. (2004). Masyarakat Konsumsi, Yogyakarta: Kreasi Wacana.

Dominick, Joseph R.. 2004. The Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media in the Digital Age, 8th edition. Boston: McGray Hill.

Griffin, Susan. 1991. Woman and Nature: The Roaring Inside Her. Sage Publishing: London.

Littlejohn, Stephen W. and Karen Foss. 2003. Theoris of Human Communication. Long Grove, IL: Waveland.

MacKinnon, Catherine A.. 1989. Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.

Saroj Hardit, Predicting Sexual Aggression Among College Men: The Role of Male Peer Groups and Sexualized Media. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2012).

Shannon O’Hara. Monsters, Playboys, Virgins, and Whores: Rape myths in the news media’s coverage of sexual violence. University of St. Andrews, UK. Language and Literature (August 2012). Vol. 21, No. 3.

Internet :

Arivia, Gadis. “Tolak Pejabat yang Merayakan Budaya Perkosaan”. Archived on http://www.jurnalperempuan.org/blog/‐tolak‐pejabat‐yang‐merayakan‐budaya‐perkosaan. Accessed on January 1, 2016.

Jensen, Robert. Rape, Rape Culture, and Problem Patriarcy. Archived in http://wagingnonviolence.org/feature/rape-rape-culture-problem-patriarchy/. Accessed on Januari 02, 2016.

Madden, Kattie. “Rape Culture the Media’s Role in Normaling Assault”. Archived in http://laverne.edu/campus-times/2014/05/rape-culture-the-medias-role-in-normalizing-assault/, accessed on Desember 31, 2015.

Marta, Amnesti. Imaji Perempuan dan Media Sosial archived on http://geotimes.co.id/imaji-perempuan-dan-media-sosial/, Accessed on January 02, 2016.

Maulidar, Indri. “Indonesia Darurat Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan”. Archived on http://nasional.tempo.co/read/news/2015/03/07/063647808/indonesia-darurat-kekerasan-terhadap-perempuan. Accessed on Desember 31, 2015.

McPhail, Beverly A.. Feminist Framework Plus: Knitting Feminist Theories of Rape Etiology Into a Comprehensive Model. Archived in http://www.uh.edu/socialwork/news/news-releases/2015-06-10_McPhail_FFP.pdf. Accessed on Januari 02, 2016.

Putri, Perdana. Melanggengkan Patriarki dalam Budaya Populer. Archived in http://indoprogress.com/2014/08/melanggengkan-patriarki-dalam-budaya-populer/. Accessed on January 2, 2016.

Wood, Julia T. “Gendered Media: The Infulence of Media on Views of Gender”. https://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/causes.of.gender.inequality/Readings/Wood%20-%20Gendered%20Media%20-%2094.pdf. Accessed on January 2, 2016

Archived in http://digilib.uin-suka.ac.id/8146/1/BAB%20I,%20V,%20DAFTAR%20PUSTAKA.pdf, accessed on January 1, 2016.

Archived on http://imaginenoborders.org/pdf/zines/UnderstandingPatriarchy.pdf, Accessed on January 02, 2016.

Archived on http://triplehelixblog.com/2013/08/mass-media-and-rape-culture-in-america/, Accessed on January 02, 2016.

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[1] Indri Maulidar. “Indonesia Darurat Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan”. Archived on http://nasional.tempo.co/read/news/2015/03/07/063647808/indonesia-darurat-kekerasan-terhadap-perempuan. Accessed on Desember 31, 2015.

[2] Gadis Arivia. “Tolak Pejabat yang Merayakan Budaya Perkosaan”. Archived on http://www.jurnalperempuan.org/blog/‐tolak‐pejabat‐yang‐merayakan‐budaya‐perkosaan. Accessed on January 1, 2016.

[3] Archived in http://digilib.uin-suka.ac.id/8146/1/BAB%20I,%20V,%20DAFTAR%20PUSTAKA.pdf, accessed on January 1, 2016.

[4] Julia T. Wood. “Gendered Media: The Infulence of Media on Views of Gender”. https://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/causes.of.gender.inequality/Readings/Wood%20-%20Gendered%20Media%20-%2094.pdf. Accessed on January 2, 2016

[5] Perdana Putri. Melanggengkan Patriarki dalam Budaya Populer. Archived in http://indoprogress.com/2014/08/melanggengkan-patriarki-dalam-budaya-populer/. Accessed on January 2, 2016.

[6] Kattie Madden. “Rape Culture the Media’s Role in Normaling Assault”. Archived in http://laverne.edu/campus-times/2014/05/rape-culture-the-medias-role-in-normalizing-assault/, accessed on Desember 31, 2015.

[7] Susan Griffin. 1991. Woman and Nature: The Roaring Inside Her. Sage Publishing: London. p. 49.   

[8] Catherine A. MacKinnon. 1989. Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.

[9] Beverly A. McPhail, Feminist Framework Plus: Knitting Feminist Theories of Rape Etiology Into a Comprehensive Model. Archived in http://www.uh.edu/socialwork/news/news-releases/2015-06-10_McPhail_FFP.pdf. Accessed on Januari 02, 2016.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Robert Jensen. Rape, Rape Culture, and Problem Patriarcy. Archived in http://wagingnonviolence.org/feature/rape-rape-culture-problem-patriarchy/. Accessed on Januari 02, 2016.

[12] Joseph R. Dominick. 2004. The Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media in the Digital Age, 8th edition. Boston: McGray Hill. (p. 41-42)

[13] Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen Foss. 2003. Theoris of Human Communication. Long Grove, IL: Waveland. p. 323.

[14] Albert Bandura. 1999. “Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.” Asian Journal of Social Psychology. p. 21-41.

[15] Gadis Arifia. 2003. Filsafat Berperspektif Feminis. Yayasan Jurnal Perempuan: Jakarta. p. 101-102

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ibid. p. 103

[18] Erich Fromm. 2010. The Art of Loving. Jalasutra: Yogyakarta. p. 177

[19] Ibid.

[20] Kattie Madden. “Rape Culture the Media’s Role in Normaling Assault”. Archived in http://laverne.edu/campus-times/2014/05/rape-culture-the-medias-role-in-normalizing-assault/, accessed on Desember 31, 2015.

[21] Op. Cit.